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Showing posts with label entry. Show all posts
Showing posts with label entry. Show all posts

Thursday 17 August 2023

A level Economics: Can India Inc extricate itself from China?

The Economist

China and India are not on the friendliest of terms. In 2020 their soldiers clashed along their disputed border in the deadliest confrontation between the two since 1967—then clashed again in 2021 and 2022. That has made trade between the Asian giants a tense affair. Tense but, especially for India, still indispensable. Indian consumers rely on cheap Chinese goods, and Indian companies rely on cheap Chinese inputs, particularly in industries of the future. Whereas India sells China the products of the old economy—crustaceans, cotton, granite, diamonds, petrol—China sends India memory chips, integrated circuits and pharmaceutical ingredients. As a result, trade is becoming ever more lopsided. Of the $117bn in goods that flowed between the two countries in 2022, 87% came from China (see chart).

India’s prime minister, Narendra Modi, wants to reduce this Sino-dependence. One reason is strategic—relying on a mercurial adversary for critical imports carries risks. Another is commercial—Mr Modi is trying to replicate China’s nationalistic, export-oriented growth model, which means seizing some business from China. In recent months his government’s efforts to decouple parts of the Indian economy from its larger neighbour’s have intensified. On August 3rd India announced new licensing restrictions for imported laptops and personal computers—devices that come primarily from China. A week later it was reported that similar measures were being considered for cameras and printers.

Officially, India is open to Chinese business, as long as this conforms with Indian laws. In practice, India’s government uses a number of tools to make Chinese firms’ life in India difficult or impossible. The bluntest of these is outright prohibitions on Chinese products, often on grounds related to national security. In the aftermath of the border hostilities in 2020, for example, the government banned 118 Chinese apps, including TikTok (a short-video sensation), WeChat (a super-app), Shein (a fast-fashion retailer) and just about any other service that captured data about Indian users. Hundreds more apps were banned for similar reasons throughout 2022 and this year. Makers of telecoms gear, such as Huawei and zte, have received the same treatment, out of fear that their hardware could let Chinese spooks eavesdrop on Indian citizens.

Tariffs are another popular tactic. In 2018, in an effort to reverse the demise of Indian mobile-phone assembly at the hands of Chinese rivals, the government imposed a 20% levy on imported devices. In 2020 it tripled tariffs on toy imports, most of which come from China, to 60% then, at the start of this year, raised them to 70%. India’s toy imports have since declined by three-quarters.

Sometimes the Indian government eschews official actions such as bans and tariffs in favour of more subtle ones. A common tactic is to introduce bureaucratic friction. India’s red tape makes it easy for officials to find fault with disfavoured businesses. Non-compliance with tax rules, so impenetrable that it is almost impossible to abide by them all, are a favourite accusation. Two smartphone makers, Xiaomi and bbk Electronics (which owns three popular brands, Oppo/OnePlus, Realme and Vivo), are under investigation for allegedly shortchanging the Indian taxman a combined $1.1bn. On August 2nd news outlets cited anonymous government officials saying that the Indian arm of byd, a Chinese carmaker, was under investigation over allegations that it paid $9m less than it owed in tariffs for parts imported from abroad. mg Motor, a subsidiary of saic, another Chinese car firm, faces investment restrictions and a tax probe.

A convoluted licensing regime gives Indian authorities more ways to stymie Chinese business. In April 2020 India declared that investments from countries sharing a border with it must receive special approvals. No specific neighbour was named but the target was clearly China. Since then India has approved less than a quarter of the 435 applications for foreign direct investment from the country. According to Business Today, a local outlet, only three received the thumbs-up in India’s last fiscal year, which ended in March. Last month reports surfaced that a proposed joint venture between byd and Megha Engineering, an Indian industrial firm, to build electric vehicles and batteries failed to win approval over security reasons.

Luxshare, a big Chinese manufacturer of devices for, among others, Apple, has yet to open a factory in Tamil Nadu, despite signing an agreement with the state in 2021. The reason for the delay is believed to be an unspoken blanket ban from the central government in Delhi on new facilities owned by Chinese companies. In early August the often slow-moving Indian parliament whisked through a new law easing the approval process for new lithium mines after a potentially large deposit of the metal, used in batteries, was unearthed earlier this year. Miners are welcome to submit applications, but Chinese bidders are expected to be viewed unfavourably.

In parallel to its blocking efforts, India is using policy to dislodge China as a leader in various markets. India’s $33bn programme of “production-linked incentives” (cash payments tied to sales, investment and output) has identified 14 areas of interest, many of which are currently dominated by Chinese companies.

One example is pharmaceutical ingredients, which Indian drugmakers have for years mostly procured from China. In February the Indian government started doling out handouts worth $2bn over six years to companies that agree to manufacture 41 of these substances domestically. Big pharmaceutical firms such as Aurobindo, Biocon, Dr Reddy’s and Strides are participating. Another is electronics. Contract manufacturers of Apple’s iPhones, such as Foxconn and Pegatron of Taiwan and Tata, an Indian conglomerate, are allowed to purchase Chinese-made components for assembly in India provided they make efforts to nurture local suppliers, too. A similar arrangement has apparently been offered to Tesla, which is looking for new locations to make its electric cars.

Some Chinese firms, tired of jumping through all these hoops, are calling it quits. In July 2022, after two years of efforts that included a promise to invest $1bn in India, Great Wall Motors closed its Indian carmaking operation, unable to secure local approvals. Others are trying to adapt. Xiaomi has said it will localise all its production and expand exports from India which, so far, go only to neighbouring countries, to Western markets. Shein will re-enter the Indian market through a joint venture with Reliance, India’s most valuable listed company, renowned for its ability to navigate Indian bureaucracy and politics. zte is reportedly attempting to arrange a licensing deal with a domestic manufacturer to make its networking equipment. So far it has found no takers. Given India’s growing suspicions of China, it may be a while before it does.

Thursday 20 July 2023

A Level Economics 36: The Assumptions of Perfect Competition

Perfect competition is a theoretical market structure characterized by several key features and assumptions. In a perfectly competitive market, there are many buyers and sellers dealing with identical or homogenous products. Each firm is a price taker, meaning it has no influence over the market price, and there are no barriers to entry or exit for new firms. Additionally, perfect information is assumed, implying that buyers and sellers have access to all relevant market information.

Underpinning Assumptions of Perfect Competition:

  1. Many Buyers and Sellers:


    • Assumption: There are numerous buyers and sellers in the market, and no single buyer or seller can significantly influence the market price.
    • Importance: The presence of many buyers and sellers ensures that no individual firm has market power to manipulate prices. This fosters intense competition, benefitting consumers with lower prices and greater product availability.

  2. Homogeneous Products:


    • Assumption: All firms in a perfectly competitive market produce identical products, making them perfect substitutes for buyers.
    • Importance: Homogeneity eliminates product differentiation and branding competition. Consumers make decisions solely based on price, leading to price-based competition that benefits consumers.

  3. Price Takers:


    • Assumption: Each firm is a price taker, meaning it must accept the market-determined price for its output and cannot influence the price through its individual actions.
    • Importance: Being a price taker eliminates pricing power and ensures that all firms face the same market price. This promotes efficient allocation of resources and prevents price manipulation.

  4. Free Entry and Exit:


    • Assumption: There are no barriers to entry or exit for new firms to enter or leave the market.
    • Importance: Free entry and exit enable new firms to enter the market if there are profits to be made or exit if there are losses. This ensures that profits are driven down to normal levels in the long run, benefiting consumers with competitive prices.

  5. Perfect Information:


    • Assumption: Buyers and sellers have access to complete and accurate information about product quality, prices, and market conditions.
    • Importance: Perfect information ensures that buyers can make informed decisions and choose the best products and prices available. Likewise, sellers can efficiently allocate resources based on market demand and conditions.

  6. Perfect Factor Mobility:


    • Assumption: Factors of production, such as labor and capital, can move freely between industries without any restrictions or costs.
    • Importance: Perfect factor mobility ensures that resources can be allocated efficiently to their most productive uses, resulting in optimal output and minimizing waste of resources.

  7. Zero Transport Costs:

    • Assumption: There are no transportation costs involved in moving goods and services between locations.
    • Importance: Zero transport costs enable the efficient movement of products and resources, leading to uniform prices across the market and avoiding regional price disparities.

  8. Rational Actor:

    • Assumption: All economic agents, including consumers and firms, are rational and act in their self-interest to maximize their utility or profits.
    • Importance: Assuming rational actors allows economists to analyze how individuals and firms make decisions based on cost-benefit analysis and react to changes in market conditions.


Example: Agricultural Commodities Market

Agricultural commodities like wheat, corn, or soybeans often exemplify perfect competition. In these markets, there are many farmers (sellers) and buyers, and each farmer produces the same commodity. Buyers, such as food processing companies or exporters, have access to perfect information about market prices and product quality. Individual farmers cannot influence market prices and must accept the prevailing price for their crops. Moreover, factors of production like labor and machinery can move freely between farms without any constraints, and there are no transport costs involved in moving agricultural products to the market.

The assumptions of perfect competition are vital because they create an ideal benchmark for understanding how competitive markets function. While perfect competition may not fully exist in the real world, understanding its underpinning assumptions helps economists analyze market dynamics and assess the impacts of market imperfections, such as monopolies or oligopolies. Moreover, perfect competition serves as a standard to measure the efficiency of other market structures and helps identify areas where regulatory intervention may be necessary to enhance consumer welfare and overall market efficiency.

Wednesday 19 July 2023

A Level Economics 34: Understanding Market Structures

The structure of a market depends on the number of firms operating within it and their ability to enter and exit the market freely, which is known as contestability. Here's an explanation with definitions and examples:

Number of Firms: The number of firms in a market refers to the total count of independent businesses competing with each other to sell similar or substitute goods or services. The number of firms influences the level of competition and market concentration, which, in turn, affects market structure. Market structures can range from a monopoly (one firm) to perfect competition (many firms).

Example: A market with only one telecommunications company providing phone services would be a monopoly. In contrast, a market with multiple telecommunications companies competing with each other would reflect a more competitive market structure, such as oligopoly or perfect competition.

Contestability (Ability to Enter and Exit Markets Freely):Contestability refers to the ease with which new firms can enter a market and compete with existing firms, as well as the freedom for existing firms to exit the market without significant barriers or impediments. The degree of contestability affects the potential for new entry and the level of competition within a market.

Example: In a market with low barriers to entry and exit, such as the smartphone app development industry, new firms can easily enter the market and offer their apps. If these firms can compete effectively with existing app developers, it indicates high contestability and a more competitive market structure.

The Relationship:The number of firms and contestability are interrelated and jointly determine the structure of a market. When there are a large number of firms and low barriers to entry and exit, it promotes competition and leads to more competitive market structures, such as perfect competition or monopolistic competition.

In contrast, when there are a small number of firms and high barriers to entry and exit, it restricts competition and can result in more concentrated market structures, such as oligopoly or monopoly.

Example: Consider the market for coffee shops in a particular city. If there are numerous coffee shops, and new coffee shops can enter the market easily and compete with existing ones, it indicates a highly contestable market with many firms. This scenario would align with a competitive market structure, such as perfect competition or monopolistic competition.

However, if there are only a few dominant coffee shop chains and significant barriers to entry, such as high startup costs or exclusive lease agreements, the market would have low contestability. This would result in a less competitive market structure, such as an oligopoly or even a monopoly if one chain has a dominant market position.

In summary, the structure of a market depends on the number of firms operating within it and their ability to enter and exit the market freely. The presence of many firms and high contestability leads to more competitive market structures, while fewer firms and low contestability can result in concentrated market structures with less competition.


--- Structural and Behavioural Barriers to Entry

Key Terms:

  1. Barriers to Entry: Barriers to entry are obstacles or restrictions that prevent new firms from entering a market and competing with existing firms. These barriers can be both structural and behavioral in nature.


  2. Structural Barriers to Entry: Structural barriers to entry refer to inherent characteristics of a market that make it difficult or costly for new firms to enter and establish themselves. These barriers are typically long-term and relate to the market's fundamental structure.


  3. Behavioral Barriers to Entry: Behavioral barriers to entry arise from the actions of existing firms in a market to discourage or limit new entrants. These barriers are often strategic and can be influenced by the actions of dominant players in the market.

Examples and Distinction:

  1. Structural Barriers to Entry:

a. Economies of Scale: When existing firms in a market benefit from economies of scale, new entrants may find it challenging to match the cost efficiency of established firms. As production increases, the average cost per unit decreases, providing a competitive advantage to larger companies. This discourages new firms from entering and competing with economies of scale.

Example: In the automobile manufacturing industry, large carmakers enjoy economies of scale due to their established production facilities, distribution networks, and purchasing power. New entrants face difficulty achieving similar cost efficiencies, making it a structural barrier to entry.

b. High Capital Requirements: Some markets require substantial upfront investments in machinery, technology, or infrastructure to compete effectively. High capital requirements act as a deterrent for new entrants, limiting their ability to enter the market.

Example: The airline industry demands significant capital investment to purchase aircraft and establish routes. This high capital requirement makes it difficult for new airlines to enter the market and compete with established carriers.

c. Access to Distribution Channels: In certain markets, established firms may control critical distribution channels, making it difficult for new entrants to reach customers effectively. Without access to established distribution networks, new firms may struggle to gain market share.

Example: In the retail industry, large supermarket chains control established distribution networks, making it challenging for new grocery stores to enter the market and compete for shelf space and customer visibility.

  1. Behavioral Barriers to Entry:

a. Predatory Pricing: Dominant firms may engage in predatory pricing, intentionally setting prices below cost to drive out new entrants. Once competitors are forced out, the dominant firm can then raise prices and regain its market power.

Example: A large software company offering its products at unprofitably low prices to deter new software startups from entering the market is an example of predatory pricing.

b. Brand Loyalty: Established firms often build strong brand loyalty and customer trust over time. This creates a barrier for new entrants as customers may be hesitant to switch to an unknown brand.

Example: Tech-savvy consumers' strong brand loyalty to smartphones may deter new smartphone manufacturers from entering the market, even if they offer innovative features.

c. Exclusive Contracts: Existing firms may enter into exclusive contracts with suppliers or distributors, preventing new entrants from accessing essential resources or distribution channels.

Example: A dominant beverage company entering into exclusive contracts with popular restaurants and convenience stores may limit the ability of new beverage companies to access these sales channels.

In summary, barriers to entry can be both structural and behavioral. Structural barriers stem from inherent market characteristics, such as economies of scale and high capital requirements. Behavioral barriers, on the other hand, result from strategic actions taken by existing firms to discourage or limit new entrants, such as predatory pricing and brand loyalty. Understanding these distinctions helps identify the challenges new firms face in entering competitive markets.



---Regulators and Contestability

Regulators play a crucial role in influencing the degree of contestability in a market by implementing policies and regulations that either promote or hinder competition. Here are several ways regulators can affect contestability in a market, along with examples:

  1. Barriers to Entry and Exit:


    • Regulators can influence the ease with which new firms can enter a market by setting entry requirements, licensing, or imposing restrictions on potential entrants.

    • They can also impact the ability of firms to exit the market by imposing exit fees, liquidation costs, or other legal barriers.

    Example: In the telecommunications industry, regulators can grant or deny licenses to new companies seeking to provide services. If regulators make it easy for new firms to obtain licenses and enter the market, it encourages greater contestability and competition among telecommunications providers.


  2. Anti-Competitive Practices:


    • Regulators can enforce antitrust laws to prevent anti-competitive practices, such as price-fixing, collusion, or predatory pricing, which can restrict competition and limit contestability in a market.

    Example: In the airline industry, regulators can investigate and take action against airlines engaging in collusion to fix ticket prices. By curbing such anti-competitive practices, regulators ensure a more competitive market that benefits consumers with lower fares and increased choices.


  3. Merger and Acquisition Approval:


    • Regulators can assess and approve or reject mergers and acquisitions based on their potential impact on competition and contestability in the market.

    • They may require divestitures or impose conditions to ensure that the merged entity does not gain undue market power that could harm competition.

    Example: When two pharmaceutical companies propose a merger, regulators may scrutinize the deal to assess its potential effects on competition in the pharmaceutical industry. If the merger is deemed to reduce competition and contestability, regulators may impose conditions or reject the merger to maintain a competitive market.



  4. Price Regulation:


    • Regulators can set price caps or price floors to prevent firms from exploiting their market power and to promote a competitive environment.

    • Price regulation can prevent monopolistic practices and ensure that consumers have access to reasonably priced goods and services.

    Example: In the electricity market, regulators can impose price ceilings to limit the prices charged by power generation companies. This prevents firms from exploiting their dominant position and promotes contestability in the electricity market, allowing new entrants to compete.


  5. Access to Essential Facilities:


    • Regulators can ensure that essential facilities or infrastructure, such as transportation networks or communication networks, are accessible to all firms on fair and non-discriminatory terms.

    • This prevents the dominant control of essential facilities by a single firm, allowing competitors to enter the market and increase contestability.

    Example: In the railroad industry, regulators can mandate that rail network operators provide access to their tracks for other freight companies at fair rates. This promotes competition in the freight transportation market and enhances contestability.

In summary, regulators can significantly influence the degree of contestability in a market through various policies, regulations, and enforcement actions. By promoting fair competition, preventing anti-competitive practices, and ensuring access to essential facilities, regulators contribute to creating more competitive and contestable markets that benefit consumers and promote innovation.